A farmer age 77, after a day’s work, in his garden on a terrace overlooking the capital. Bamako, Mali, 30 August 2010View of the Ouakam district, of the new and highly criticized “Statue of African Renaissance” conceived by Senegalese president Abdoulaye Wade. Fifty meters tall, it costs 23 million euros. The head of state, following hunger riots in Dakar in 2008, launched a “grand agriculture offensive for food and abundance (GOANA)” and called for a “Return to the earth”. One of the slogans of this political initiative, meant to attract investors, is “Agriculture, a new business” (Plan A.N.Reva). Dakar, Senegal, 19 May 2010Scene in the Hyppodrome district of Bamako where some embassies are located. Gardening has become a trend in the city, I was told, as such it serves as a last resort for urban victims of the economic crisis and farmers who have left the countryside (the rural exodus) for the city. Bamako, Mali, 28 August 2010A mural advertising insecticides. For many farmers these products are out of reach because they are too expensive. There are failures as well to follow instructions (dosage, protective clothing,...) that are potentially injurious to health and the environment due to inadequate or no training. Ouakam. Dakar, Senegal, 5 January 2011Scene in the Hyppodrome district of Bamako where some embassies are located, on the way to Koulikoro. Gardening has become a major trend in the city, I was told, as such it serves as a last resort for urban victims of the economic crisis and farmers who have left the countryside (the rural exodus) for the city. Bamako, Mali, 28 August 2010A Senegalese agricultural worker at the entrance of a greenhouse, owned by a French investor and situated about 50 kilometers from Dakar. This type of intensive agriculture with the help of foreign capital is growing more and more common in Senegal, which possesses a favourable climate and a cheap labour market (about 1.50 euros for a day’s work). Not far from Bayahk, Senegal, 23 May 2010The enclosed yard of a new farm about 100 km from Ouagadougou. Following the new Land Act passed in Burkina Faso in 2009, someone close to the government has just bought at a very good price (it’s rumored to be 25,000 CFA per hectare, or about 38 euros) 70 hectares with the aim of developing an “agro-business”. Enactment of this wide ranging law, seeking to set aside land favourable to investment, runs the risk of setting off a string of violent conflicts if a balance is not maintained. Sapouy, Burkina Faso, 3 November 2010A poultry barn about fifty kilometers from Dakar. This family farm (on the surrounding wall is written “Farm of Franco-Senegalese Friendship”) was made possible thanks to an expatriate living for a number of years near Paris who has invested in the region. Not far from Bayahk, Senegal, 25 May 2010In the largest industrial region of the country (The Chemical Industries of Senegal) a phosphate mining operation. If nearly all the acid phosphate produced here is exported to the Indian partner, a small portion is used to make fertilizer in a plant near Dakar. Darou, Senegal, 29 May 2010Equipment for bagging Matam phosphate. Research at ISRA (Senegalese Institute for Agriculture Research) confirms that “Matam phosphate is exceptionally well adapted for direct use in agriculture as a natural fertilizer and top dressing.” The development of this deposit was mandated in 2008 under the new agriculture policy of the country : GOANA (the Grand Agricultural Offensive for Food and Abundance) following the hunger riots in 2008. Hounaré, Senegal, 19 July 2010A scene in the shop of “Agriculture Input” part of the REVA plan (A.N.REVA: Agence Nationale du plan de Retour vers l'Agriculture) of Ngomene, one hundred kilometers from Dakar. The man on the left is a Spaniard come to sell equipment. Ngomene, Senegal, 26 May 2010A meeting with the representatives of the REVA plan (Agence Nationale du plan de Retour Vers l'Agriculture) and the villagers. This plan has the aim of stabilizing the population through agriculture within the context of a massive rural exodus and emigration. Attending the meeting are some young people who had left to find work in Dakar and are now returned. Ngomene, Senegal, 26 May 2010Workers at the “Centre of Excellence in Agriculture of Ngomene, financed by His Majesty Mohamed VI, King of Marocco and the State of Senegal” according to the sign at the entrance to the area, take advantage of the facility to charge their portable batteries because the surrounding villages have no electricity. Ngomene, Senegal, 26 May 2010Harvesting melons produced by a group of villagers for the Ngomene Centre. The REVA plan signifies the Return to Agriculture. These melons are intended for sale at the local market but much of the crop is exported to Spain. Ngomene, Senegal, 26 May 2010A place called “Km 20” on the route from Thies to St Louis. They are selling mangoes and melons to people in cars and buses. Senegal, 22 May 2010A technician from the Senegalese Forest and Water Service inspects a project for stabilizing the dunes to fight against the gradual silting up of the cultivated basins. The Niayes Zone along the Atlantic coast between Dakar and St Louis is a very critical region for the country because this is where two-thirds of the vegetables consumed in the country are grown. At the end of a taped interview I did with this man, when I thought that everything had been said, I asked him if he wanted to add anything and he responded : “I want to send an appeal to help us. You’ve seen that it is difficult to get to the dunes and we can’t get there with carts and donkeys to work on its stabilization.” Lompoul, Senegal, 4 June 2010A small nursery in Lompoul, not far from the site where Louis Faidherbe (the French commander and administrator of Senegal during its colonial period) made his camp during his march from Dakar to St Louis. A nurseryman is watering eucalyptus and acacia seedlings which will be replanted in the dunes to help prevent the silting up of the vegetable growing basins. Lompoul, Senegal, 4 June 2010A vegetable basin in the Niayes Zone. This stretch of commercial gardens, which is strategic for the country (it is said that two-thirds of the vegetables consumed in the country are grown in this zone) is under threat of siltification and desertification. A knowledgeable old man whom I interviewed told me that in his youth “this area was a thick forest and there were alligators in the basins.” Not far from Lompoul, Senegal, 4 June 2010Niayes Zone. Firing up the pump motor that is used to irrigate the vegetable garden. This type of equipment isn’t common since it is out of reach for most of the gardeners (the capital cost, the price of petrol). In the background is the Filao belt (the tropical tree is called the Casuarina and has the remarkable property of revitalizing depleted soil and making it fit to replant). This forest barrier also protects against erosion from the sea. Built during the 70s along the Atlantic coast, it has to be strenuously maintained and protected from, among other threats, the land developers in order to preserve its role in sustaining the ecosystem. Mboro, Senegal, 1 June 2010This man is preparing this patch with the aim of planting melons. He told me that he is one of the last farmers in this area (Langue de Barbarie) which is exposed to significant problems of salinization due to its maritime position in the Zone, to drought, and to human activity on the Senegal River. If the situation here is extreme, the salinization of soil is a recurrent cause of the degradation of agricultural land, here as elsewhere, throughout the Sine-Saloun region. Gandiol, Senegal, 6 June 2010A local farmer is planting onions at the start of the dry season. Market gardening is an important activity here that follows the harvest of millet and sorghum. But it is limited by the scarcity of water, the lack of financial resources to provide equipment and supplies, and sometimes by the lack of training in their use. Reo, Burkina Faso, 7 December 2010At the beginning of the dry season for garden vegetables, a man is digging a well in order to water his anticipated crop. Market gardening is an important activity here that follows the harvest of millet and sorghum. But it is limited by the scarcity of water, the lack of financial resources to provide equipment and supplies, and sometimes by the lack of training in their use. Reo, Burkina Faso, 7 December 2010At the end of the day in Niayes region (where it is said that two-thirds of the vegetables consumed in Senegal are grown) a farmer waters his cabbage patch. The lack of equipment makes the work very difficult and greatly limits the possibility of putting more area under production and thereby raising revenues. The absence of resources comes up in almost every discussion with the peasant farmers and discourages them to the extent that some leave and even seek to emigrate. Lampoul, Senegal, 3 June 2010The Niayes Zone garden market, where it is said that two-thirds of the vegetables consumed in Senegal are grown. These children are weeding a family onion patch. According to UNICEF the net rate of boys attending primary school between 2005-2009 was 58%. Darou, Senegal, 29 May 2010Scene at a Chinese-Senegalese demonstration and training centre for garden marketing. Here they are growing vegetables that are well known in Senegal, but also some like the small cabbages that come from China. When I asked a Chinese translator what is China’s interest in promoting these centres (I had visited another in Podor, in the north of the country, where they promoted Chinese methods of rice production) he replied with a disarming smile and said, “None”. Sino-Senegalese cooperation in agriculture was revived after the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 2005. Sangalkam, Senegal, 22 May 2010A vegetable grower fertilizes his garden. Fertilizer is a source of frustration because not all farmers can afford to buy it. In a situation where the soil (which is already impoverished) is faced with the effects of climate change, research has been launched and new techniques using organic fertilizers are being applied in hopes of improving yields if not restoring the soil. Reo, Burkina Faso, 7 December 2010Scene on the road from Niayes. Expansion of the large cities (this is Dakar) due to a demographic explosion and a rural exodus. Urbanization, rapid and sometimes chaotic, encroaches on arable land and areas of natural vegetation. Near Pout, Senegal, 28 May 2010Scene on market day, which is held 5 days a week in this little village on the small dirt road connecting Banfora to Gaoua. Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 13 October 2010Along a side road near Kampti, a woman display peanuts and her small collection of vegetables. Scenes of this type are very common along the roadways, and as the mayor of a little village not far from here told me: “This is subsistence farming. I don’t know how to get out of it and move toward a market agriculture that would get people out of this kind of improvising and poverty.” Near Kampti, Burkina Faso, 20 October 2010On the road from Kouoro Barrage, some street vendors are here to buy sweet potatoes at 75 CFA per kilo from the villagers, to sell at 100 CFA (15 euro centimes) in Sikasso, forty kilometers away. The young man in the foreground is counting the money he has just been given. As I see it, the fact that the plots are too small (unworkable beyond 3 to 5 hectares due to the lack of family owned tools), the prices too low, the difficulties in transport and storage, all condemn the rural farmers to poverty. Sikasso province, Mail, 18 September 2010At the far northern end of the Niayes Zone, some merchants pose in front of the sacks of onions they have just bought and will ship to Dakar. The farmers, who are faced with a lot of financial hardship, are not usually able to stock their produce and wait for price to rise. Gandiol, Senegal, 7 June 2010The Medine market. On the road leading from Kayes to Banako I photographed some trucks coming from Dakar loaded with Dutch onions. In the market, which is well known in the capital, a 25 kg sack of onions from Holland sells today for 11,500 CFA which is 17,53 euros (the sellers pay 11,000) while the same 25 kg with onions from Mail sells for 12,500 CFA. The merchants told me that the country needs imported onions because there are not enough storage units, therefore in full season Mali onions are cheap because there are too many, then there is a shortage. Bamako, Mail, 21 August 2010An old man weeds his bottom land rice patch by hand. It is called bottom land because there is no system of irrigation. The water that we see accumulated during the rainy season. A thorough weeding is essential in order to have a respectable yield per hectare. Near Kouoro-Barrage, Mail, 19 September 2010A farmer looks over his irrigated rice field. He has in parallel two other fields where he grows vegetables. In the audio interview I made with him, he said, like many others concerning GOANA (the Grand Agricultural Offensive for Food and Abundance), that it was a political gimmick and that on the ground he never saw a sign of it. His father, also a peasant farmer, had done better cultivating less land (the ground isn’t as good any longer, one has to buy fertilizer, etc...), and under no circumstances would he want his children to follow after him. Senegal, 13 June 2010A technician from SAED (National Society for the Planning of River Delta Farmland) has come to inventory the fields that make up the irrigated rice perimeter around the village. SAED’s mission, as it says itself, is to establish the “techo-economic potential for achieving self-sufficiency in rice by 2012.” Kassack Sud, Senegal, 18 June 2010A woman watches her plot of irrigated rice and frightens the hungry birds that eat the ripe grains. The investigators at Africa Rice estimate that the average annual loss caused by birds was 11.2 % of the potential harvest between 2003-2007. Lampsar, Senegal, 13 June 2010At the edge of the village, a farmer is on his way to the irrigated perimeter where the dry-season rice harvest is currently underway. The combine has been out of service for a long time due to a lack of spare parts. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 23 June 2010Scene at the dry-season rice harvest along the irrigated communal perimeter. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 19 June 2010Scene at the dry-season rice harvest along the irrigated communal perimeter. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 19 June 2010Some seasonal workers from Gambia, come to work in the rice fields belonging to Valley Rice, cropping the dry-season harvest. I was told that the salary is 1,000 CFA per day (about 1.50 euros), and to save a little money they live in makeshift shelters not far from the fields. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 19 June 2010The camp of the seasonal workers from Gambia who have come to work in the rice fields. This camp is is right next to the fields that they are currently cutting. In this place I had the strong impression of returning 3 years earlier to the time I photographed sub-Saharan migrant workers in their makeshift camps at the borders of the strawberry fields and apple orchards, etc...in Spain. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 22 June 2010A rice harvesting combine working in the irrigated perimeter not far from Richard-Toll, in the region of the Senegal River at the north of the country. Of the dozen days that I spend in the area, it is the only one I ever saw working. Many farmers reckon that for the small fields they are able to plant it isn’t worth it: rental for the machine comes to 17% of the sale price per hectare, and beyond that too much grain is lost. Near Ross Bhetio, Senegal, 25 June 2010A local farmer inspects a field of dry-season rice “spoiled” by too much salinization. Six months later when I called him to get some news, he told me that the winter season was bad, the rains were stronger than usual, and that he lost his whole crop. I read later that the damage to irrigated perimeters and communal fields north and south of Kassak was severe and almost the entire area was submerged by water (around 784 hectares). Kassak Sud, Senegal, 19 June 2010An Ivorian researcher tends some subcultures in the Research Centre for Africa Rice in Senegal. Among the different varieties of rice (Nerica, Sahel 108, etc...), the new variety, called Nerica (New Rice for Africa), is considered by some to offer hope to the millions of peasant Africans who cultivate grain under the harsh environment of West Africa. Others, such as the peasant farmers organizations, denounce the results of performance in the field as not living up to the advertised figures and as an expansion of agro-business, which threatens to “wipe out the foundations of Africa’s food sovereignty: the small producers and their local systems for the sustainable use of seeds”. Ndiaye, Senegal, 15 June 2010The head of the research station of the ISRA (Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research) points to a field of Nerica rice. The Nerica variety (an acronym for New Rice for Africa) is a cross between two cultivated species: Orysa sativa (an Asian species) and Oryza glaberrima (an African species). Some describe the hybrid as an “African miracle rice” because it has a high protein content, it is adapted to poor soil and dryness, and is resistant to weeds, predators and diseases. It can go without fertilizer and pesticides, and has a shorter growing cycle than conventional rice, etc... For others it is the leading edge of an agro-food industry on the African continent that will force producers to buy their seeds every year. Fanaye, Senegal, 5 July 2010In the Centre for Research on Africa Rice, a French doctoral student from CIRAD (French Agricultural Research Centre for Development) takes some infrared photographs of rice flowers of different varieties to measure their temperature under heat stress. This is to better understand the reaction of the plant to a particular micro-climate, within the area of research concerned with climate change. Ndiaye, Senegal, 15 June 2010The head of the research station of the ISRA (Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research) show us some corn and wheat on display in an office. Like the Nerica rice, reactions to the Obatampa corn are, according to the parties, either praised or blamed. As for the wheat, Senegal would like to get back to producing it after having stopped 30 years ago. Policymakers consider that since eating habits have changed (bread, and pasta,...), a return to production would help the country achieve its goals of food self-sufficiency, fight poverty and contribute to the rebalance of trade. Fanaye, Senegal, 5 July 2010A research engineer showed me around the “showcase” (demonstration plots) of the INERA (Institute for Environmental and Agricultural Research). These demonstration plantings are meant to popularize the results of his research into new varieties of corn, rice, fodder, millet, acha, sorghum, soybeans, cassava, peanuts, GM cotton, etc... Farako-Ba, Burkina Faso, 4 October 2010A researcher in cotton varieties showed me around the “showcase” (demonstration plots) of the INERA (Institute for Environmental and Agricultural Research). This plot demonstrates genetically modified cotton from the firm Monsanto. In 2009 cotton accounted for 60% of the export revenue from Burkina (the biggest producer in sub-Saharan Africa), where it creates employment for over three million people. Here as elsewhere, peasant farmers are divided about whether to get into GMO crops, for the same reasons (the cost of seeds, health concerns, the environment, …). Farako-Ba, Burkina Faso, 4 October 2010On the porch of a village house, the preparation of sorghum seeds for the rainy season which has just begun. When I was surprised to read on the sack, “Hybrid sorghum seeds from Provence” they told me that these seeds mature quicker (therefore the producers want them) and they are subsidized up to 75% by the state (of the 3,000 CFA per kilo, the producer only pays 700) under the sponsorship of GOANA (Grand Agricultural Offensive for Food and Abundance). Diandioly, Senegal, 13 July 2010These two young men are planting millet in a field. These were the first people that I had seen planting. I was astonished standing next to their father (busy building fences), since everything was dry and still very hot. He explained that last year the first rain fell on June 18th, and by planting now he would be on time. This old practice of dry planting before the rainy season is less used nowadays. Later on in the Kayes region of Mali, I met a number of farmers who were very anxious because of the dry spells and the delay of the rainy season. They had to replant two or three times even though they had used wet planting. Near Kebemer, Senegal, 3 July 2010The start of the rainy season in the Sahel region of Senegal. This man has just cut some scrub brush and is dragging it to his field where he will plant millet, in order to protect the plants from the livestock. Agencies like the CILSS (Permanent Inter-State Committee for the Fight Against Drought in the Sahel) are developing, with only modest means, methods of constructing hedges or launching programs to build screens in order to combat deforestation. Diandioly, Senegal, 13 July 2010A scene of marking cattle in a little village of Fulani herdsmen. In this pre-winter period flocks suffer greatly because of the drought and I noticed along the roads and trails many casualties, many carcasses of animals. Not far from Ross Bhetio, Senegal, 25 June 2010A team of veterinarians has come to a small Fulani village in the Sahel region of the country to “sound” the cows, do a census and place spiral catheters for the next insemination on D14. The ranchers will have a choice of inseminating their cows (a sturdy resistant local breed) with sperm from Holstein, Normande, Montbeliarde, or a breed of Brazilian cattle. The veterinarians, from La Laiterie du Berger in Richard Toll, are sent by the government under the auspices of the GOANA (Grand Agricultural Offensive for Food and Abundance) to carry out the insemination program. The goal is to make the cows, which presently produce a maximum of 3 liters per day, produce 10 to 15. I was skeptical, but Issa, one of the veterinarians, told me that it`s better for the herdsmen to have five cows who admittedly need more food and water, than to look after 15 to 20 in order to obtain the same amount of milk. This is the second year of the program, I will be very curious to know what happens over time. Fulani village, in the Sahel region of Senegal, 2 July 2010In a little Fulani village in the Sahel region of Senegal, a woman is milking a cow. Milk production faces a lot of difficulties: there is not enough equipment, problems in storage, collection from isolated, hard-to-reach areas, unfair competition from imported milk powder. According to many observers a major effort must be made to help to the market for locally produced milk, the majority of which comes from small family farms, in order to correct the balance of trade and to fight against poverty. Senegal,29 June 2010La Laiterie du Berger, located in the Sahel region, uses only milk collected in the villages or surrounding hamlets, whereas others I was told use imported milk power exclusively. The director general and co-founder of the dairy, Bagoré Bathily, is a veterinarian trained in Europe. Richard Toll, Senegal, 30 June 2010On the roof of ‘’La Laiterie du Berger’’, Kevin, a technician from a French company is conducting tests with his assistant from the ministry to validate his model for refrigerating milk with the aid of solar panels. As luck would have it we met again several months later in Dakar. It turns out that the project, so promising at first (as it was a question of using the technique not only for milk coolers but for refrigerating produce as well) had encountered, as they say euphemistically, “some complications”, and if it worked out in the end it would take some time. Richard Toll, Senegal, 29 June 2010After a heavy rainfall at the start of the rainy season, a Fulani woman is bringing home some ground peanuts (which she just bought at a village 2 km from her house). She can now feed her cattle which are starved after the drought that comes before the rainy season and weakened by the cold and humidity of the past few days. Near Diandioly, Senegal, 13 July 2010Having found some ground peanuts (in the village of Diandioly which is a good 2 km from her tiny village) this woman has fed them to her small herd, which has been starving during the dry season and is now considerably weakened by the heavy rains at the beginning of the rainy period. Near Diandioly, Senegal, 13 July 2010In front of her house in a tiny Fulani village, a woman warms up her goat which is shivering after the heavy rains at the beginning of the wet season. The preceding dry season was responsible for a serious drought throughout the whole Sahel region. Near Diandioly, Senegal, 13 July 2010In the early morning a young boy has just returned to his small family farm with a few bites of food he was able to beg in a nearby village of gold panners. The period that poses the most difficulty in finding food is often called “la période de soudure” (the in-between period before the harvest when the stocks from the previous season have run out), but for some families, unfortunately, the problem is chronic. Near Kampti, Burkina Faso, 19 October 2010Scene at the entrance to a little village grocery store. During my travels, many evening discussions with my hosts turned around the questions of assuring enough food, of dependency and food self-sufficiency. Near Nkourala, Mail, 8 September 2010A baby-weighing clinic for the village children, as part of a program set up by the US (USAID) in response to the food crisis, a program which also plans to “make a significant investment in the agricultural sector”. Today, in the middle of “la période de soudure” (the gap between having finished last year’s harvest and waiting for the next), a child was identified as very malnourished and must be taken to the hospital in St. Louis within the next few days. Kassak Sud, Senegal, 17 June 2010Scene in a rural village in Mali. As well as problems of malnutrition, studies show a trend toward overeating leading to obesity (especially among women and among the urban poor). In many of the rural clinics where I spent the night during this trip, besides the problem of malaria, doctors and nurses talked about arterial hypertension attributed to poor eating habits. Medical experts speak of this as the “double burden” of Africa. A high prevalence of obesity is likely to harm an already fragile African economy. NKouralam, Mali, 10 October 2010In Bamako I spent three nights at the home of a lovely American couch-surfer who worked for the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The Foundation runs an anti-malaria program in the area. During a pancake breakfast we spoke about the banalization of malaria that we had observed among the people here, and we laughed about all the uses that could be made of the mosquito nets that are given away. He added one to my list: catching fish. Near Baama, Burkina-Faso, 30 September 2010Here is another way to use a mosquito net! More seriously, in a discussion I had with a doctor who was later to treat me after I had contracted malaria, when I mentioned the banalization of this serious disease he said: “Certainly the distribution of free mosquito nets has had an effect, but consider that everyone here has malaria: you can’t single out half of the population. For me, the only solution would be a vaccine.” Research is making progress along these lines. For example, an anti-malaria vaccine has been developed by the international non-profit health organization, PATH. After clinical trials that take place in Africa, production could start within a few years. Segue, Mali, 10 August 2010Start of the rainy season. These young boys are taking advantage of the first rains for a swim, while in the background the girls are taking herbs they have just picked back to the village to use in sauces that accompany cooked cereal. Since this is the middle of “la période de soudure” (the gap between having finished last year’s harvest and waiting for the next), this contribution is going to be welcome in many famlies. Near Diandioly, Senegal, 15 July 2010A scene along the dirt road that leads to Ouo. Because of problem of communication (different languages), I wasn’t able to learn what purpose the water would serve that he was collecting and about to transport. I happened to see people drink water like this in the bush, but at homes most people have wells. Near Ouo, Burkina Faso, 15 October 2010These women and children are using rainwater collected on the road to wash their bean harvest, to do the dishes and wash themselves. Torrential rains during the wet season and runoff from the gullies ruin the roads every year. Not far from Sikasso, Mail, 14 July 2010In the Sahel region of Senegal at the beginning of the rainy season, a shepherd is a two day’s march from his village. He left there 20 days ago to find some relief from the famine that was ravishing his flock during the drought. Four or five km from Ounare, Senegal, 18 July 2010In the Sahel region of Senegal at the beginning of the rainy season, a shepherd has stopped momentarily on his way back to his village. He left there to find some relief from the famine that was ravishing his flock during the drought. The milk that is collected here will be mixed with millet and sugar. Outside of Ounare, Senegal - 18 July 2010.Scene in the Sahel region of Senegal. During my travels I saw a lot of dead and abandoned animals, which didn’t seem to me to bother most people. In this particular case I don’t know the reason for the deaths. I don’t believe that this time it was the famine which had been very destructive during the drought preceding the rainy season. I can’t be sure but I was told that at the beginning of the rains the animals eat too many green shoots and die. Near Urossogui, Senegal - 12 July 2010.A cross-the-border shepherd bringing his cattle from Mail to Senegal, tries to prevent his herd from entering a field that has just been plowed and planted. Hostility, even fights, between strangers and locals, herders and farmers, are frequent (accusations of cattle theft, ruining the land, spreading disease, competition for forage which is scarce due to the drought...). Mali now prohibits access by Senegalese herdsmen, which creates serious tensions at the border for the people of both countries. Near the route leading to Marena, Mali, 27 July 2010A portrait of a shepherd. In spite of my efforts (there was a problem with communication) I wasn’t able to learn his nationality. Throughout the trip I had fun photographing the signs of American influence, especially the outfits. The image of Obama is “iconic” at every level of society in the countries I visited. Near Bokiladji, Mail, 21 July 2010Unloading bales of wire that will be used to make fences. La Zarese de Matam, (fonds Italie CILLS), which has as its mission “the fight against desertification and reduction of poverty in the Sahel” supports the program. Thanks to a workshop to produce wire mesh, two villagers per village manufacture fences which are sold to farmers for 500 CFA per meter (for comparison, Chinese wire mesh fence of poorer quality would cost about 1,500 CFA per meter). Ogo, Senegal, 16 July 2010Hassan, a young man 28 years old, was cut across the face by a machete. He told me that the day before he tried to drive a herd of cows out of his family’s rice field (he was on duty to scare the birds). He was attacked by six Fulani herdsmen. A friend of his father had tried to help and he was also attacked, wounded on the shoulder. Boudoum, Senegal, 21 July 2010Following a storm and heavy rains, this village woman is sorting bean seeds (niebe) from the preceding harvest in order to plant them. In the Sahel region of Mali, rain has been infrequent and irregular, forcing farmers to plant several times over. Near Makana, 3 August 2010A family is busy plowing a patch of land. Last night there had been 47 mm of rain and Toussaint, the agent at the sub-station of the Ministry of Agriculture (at whose home I had spent the night), told me that “This is only the third heavy rain of the season. Quite worrisome. The season has started late. People don’t have much time to plant, or their crops won’t ripen by the end of the wet period.” Not far from Segala, Mali, 28 July 2010Plowing a field in preparation for planting. For farm activities, sometimes the whole family is pressed into service. Near Kobilo, Senegal, 12 July 2010Lunch break (with rice and peanut sauce). To provide the maximum protection for their crops against the grazing herds (since there are no fences), they have decided to plow and plant far from the road that the shepherds use, and a good 4 km from the village. Diangounte Kamara, Mail, 30 July 2010A farmer is watching the work of a tractor which he has rented to plow his small piece of land (an hour is equivalent to 40,000 CFA, around 61 euros, a significant amount of money here where the guaranteed minimum wage -SMIG- is 47,700 CFA). The tractor belongs to person who makes a business from it. During the trip, I rarely saw tractors, and even fewer tractors that would run. Diandioly, Senegal, 17 July 2010Planting a demonstration plot of a project belonging to the “Zarese de Matam” (the Italian CILLS fund - The Permanent Inter-state Committee for the Fight Against Drought in the Sahel). This project is intended to popularize the “Zai” technique from Burkina Faso in Senegal. It is the first effort in the country I was told. The technique is to prepare the soil beforehand by making holes which are then filled with manure and fertilizer (the fertilizer isn’t part of the traditional method in Burkina Faso). This permits the rainwater to seep into the ground reducing erosion and thereby restoring the depleted Sahelian soil and improving yields. Hombo, Senegal, 14 July 2010These women are busy planting peanuts. Last night there had been 47 mm of rain and Toussaint, the agent at the sub-station of the Ministry of Agriculture (at whose home I had spent the night), told me that “This is only the third heavy rain of the season. Quite worrisome. The season has started late. People don’t have much time to plant, or their crops won’t ripen by the end of the wet period.” Not far from Segala, Mali, 28 July 2010A portrait of Ibrahim Konate in the field where he is plowing with the help of his younger brother and his daughter. He spent more that a year in Libya, trying twice to get to Spain and each time he was refused. He tells me that he is constantly dreaming of Europe because the life is so hard here. In the Sahel near Makana, Mali, 3 August 2010A portrait of a Fulani woman at the end of the day. She and members of her family have been foraging “for several months” as I understand it, looking for sufficient food for their herds. Now that the rainy season has begun they are on their way home to their village, located, they say, in the Sahel region of Nara. I read later that the dry season had been especially hard and many groups had left much earlier than usual. They arrived here in the middle of the afternoon and had almost finished setting up camp. Just after sunset we were struck by heavy rains. Near Segue, Mali, 7 August 2010This young woman is busy setting up camp. She and members of her family have been foraging for several months as I understand it, looking for enough food for their herd of cows. I noticed that it is the women who unload and set up the tents. The men “manage” the herds, drink tea and fetch water using petrol cans and bicycles...Later on, it was explained to me on several occasions (although I can’t verify it) that the women are eager to do this all alone, and “in this way they are able to brush off the men they are not interested in.” Near Segue, Mali, 7 August 2010About 5 km from the previous evening’s camp, a small group of Fulani shepherds have stopped once again to pass the night. The mother, having set up the camp is preparing to take her child, who has malaria, to the dispensary in the little village of Segue not far from here. In addition to its mortality rate (every 30 seconds, mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa, a child dies of malaria) studies have shown that it has detrimental effects on productivity, the country’s GDP, and emphasize its role in aggravating rural poverty. Families spend a significant portion of their resources on treatment, and having malaria limits the activity of people of whatever age. Segue, Mali, 8 August 2010A quinine injection is given by the clinic’s nurse and nurse’s aide to this little baby who has malaria. The mother and a group of family members are traveling with their herds and are camped for the night not far from the village. In Africa, the mortality associated with this endemic parasitic disease is estimated to be nearly one million per year, and it is responsible for one out of 5 deaths among children. The majority of child deaths due to malaria are attributed to a delay in receiving effective treatment. Having often asked to be able to spend the night in health care clinics, I have seen on many occasions families arrive with sick infants in their arms having waited until the last moment. Seque, Mali, 8 August 2010A young man is being treated for malaria. His clothes are soiled, I think because he had a convulsion, and he is placed on the floor by the nurses. After an infusion of quinine he improved and he was returned to his family with an appointment for the next day to continue treatment. After they left, the “major” (the head nurse) told me: “If he remains stable they won’t come back, you’ll see, and he will quickly relapse. It’s not like in France, you pay for the treatment, and these people don’t have any money.” Unfortunately, as studies have shown, “Malaria and poverty are related and rural populations are particularly affected.” NKourala, Mali, 9 September 2010Scene in a small village 20 km from Tiefora. A farmer is dead “after a long illness” and will be buried behind his house, during the night, immediately following a mass celebrated by a Protestant minister. Burkina Faso, 9 October 2010Scene in a small village 20 km from Tiefora. A farmer is dead “after a long illness”. The women watch the corpse while the men dig the grave immediately behind the house. He will be buried during the night, following a mass celebrated by a Protestant minister. Burkina Faso, 9 Ocobert 2010On the road to Koundougou. These young men tell me that this morning they have sprayed a field of cotton. Two months later an environmental protection researcher in Burkina Faso told me that these pesticide sprays are provided by the cotton companies for the protection of cotton plants, and that the surplus is used by the villagers for their grain crops or their vegetable gardens. His results show that most of the time the local farmers have no information on the use of these products, and that lacking the funds they do the least expensive thing, even if it isn’t well suited to their needs. Near Koundougou, Burkina Faso, 29 October 2010In a field, the Canadian NGO, Sahel 21, has organized a training session on the spraying of insecticide, not far from Segue where they have a developmental program. Mali, 9 August 2010A violent thunderstorm has just struck. The rainy season is nearing its end. The wet season turned out to be “atypical” this year, which surprised people. Here as in Mali and Senegal, it took until the end of July for the season to really get started, and the rains lasted until the end of October. About 10 km from Toussiana, Burkina Faso, 7 October 2010A violent thunderstorm has just struck. The rainy season is nearing its end. The wet season turned out to be “atypical” this year, which surprised people. Here as in Mali and Senegal, it took until the end of July for the season to really get started, and the rains lasted until the end of October. About 5 km from Passena, Burkina Faso, 7 October 2010A violent thunderstorm has just struck. The rainy season is nearing its end. The wet season turned out to be “atypical” this year, which surprised people. Here as in Mali and Senegal, it took until the end of July for the season to really get started, and the rains lasted until the end of October. About 10 km from Toussiana, Burkina Faso, 7 October 2010Scene in the “courtyard” of a house during the rainy season. This woman is cooking peanuts. Near Nkourala, Mail, 8 September 2010These two men are waiting for the end of a rainstorm before going back to work on their field. A small village on the road from Sido, Mali, 4 September 2010In the village of Sido, in the middle of the afternoon, a violent storm broke out causing floods and here the destruction of a wall of a house. Sido, Mali, 4 September 2010In the village of Sido, in the middle of the afternoon, a violent storm broke out causing floods and here the destruction of a wall of this family’s house. Sido, Mali, 4 September 2010Josuhe shows me his field of corn that was flooded at Kouoro Barrage when the Banifing River overflowed. He lost his cotton harvest as well in the flood. I read later (in an article dated October) that the water continued to rise, that a first assessment of the flood damage had been made, and that although there was no loss of life, the material damage could amount to 1,028 home destroyed and 2,119 people affected. It was also reported that “The women lost all of their rice fields which are estimated to be 127 hectares. These women don’t know how they are going to repay the agricultural loans made with the banks to develop their rice fields.” Kouoro Village, Mali, 19 September 2010 This farmer shows me the fields of corn that had been flooded at Kouoro Barrage after the Banifing River overflowed. The flooding of fields of corn, millet and cotton has placed the affected families in serious difficulty because there will be no harvest for them this year, and some of them told me they are thinking of leaving the village. Kouoro Village, Mali, 19 September 2010A young boy repairs the roof of a barn damaged by the rain while in the background his mother is doing the laundry. A small village on the road from Kelaya, Mali, 3 September 2010As a result of the torrential rains and flooding that struck on July 29 and the 8th and 22nd of August and destroyed homes and crops, the homeless, after having been housed temporarily in the rooms of the primary school, live in tents not far away since the resumption of the school year. As of August 10, there were 291 people affected and 275 left homeless. Kondougou, Burkina Faso, 30 September 2010The torrential rains and flooding that struck on July 29 and the 8th and 22nd of August, destroyed (besides family homes) the mosque whose ruins you can see in the background. “According to a study published in the British journal, Nature, the link between global warming, torrential rains and flooding has been scientifically established by researchers at Environment Canada. Human activity has a direct influence on precipitation.” Kondougou, Burkina Faso, 30 September 2010During the night, the banco (mud brick) wall of the room collapsed due to the heavy rains. Luckily no one was hurt. They are now waiting for the end of the rainy season to rebuild it. “According to a study published in the British journal, Nature, the link between global warming, torrentiaul rains and flooding has been scientifically established by researchers at Environment Canada. Hman activity has a direct influence on precipitation.” Farako-Bâ, Burkina Faso, 5 October 2010Portrait of a herdsman and several of his cattle during the rainy season. Near the road leading to Niema, Mali, 7 September 2010A mother and her child are gathering niebe (beans). The father told me later that this has not been a good year for the beans because they didn’t use insecticide early enough, which means the entire harvest will go to the family. Farako-Bâ, Burkina Faso, 5 October 2010For this family, it is the first year that they harvest genetically modified cotton (GMO - from Monsanto). If the child looks frightened, it is because, says his older sister, it is the first time he has seen a white man. Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 12 October 2010This family has the use of only a small parcel of land a good two kilometers from their home. The niebe (beans) they are collecting are mainly for their own use. When this harvest is finished they will turn their attention to the lowland rice where they are growing about one hectare just behind their home. Passena, Burkina Faso, 23 October 2010A group of villagers have come to help the owner of this field gather his corn crop. The owner is smiling, the season was good. He thinks he will be able to keep 40% of his crop and sell the rest. Fanterella, Mail, 12 September 2010Michael busy harvesting his peanuts. In 2002 he made an attempt to go to Spain via Senegal, but he didn’t have the means to take a boat and after a year spent away he preferred to return home. “In Senegal I worked in the big peanut fields. You might say that my life was a little bit better there, but it’s hard to be away from your family. This is my country, I feel at home here.” Near Kampti, Burkina Faso, 17 October 2010A family separates its harvest of peanuts. Fifty kilometers from Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 8 October 2010Some boys, after spreading out ears of corn to dry, have stacked them so they can be protected from rain by a plastic sheet. They are picking up the grains that have fallen from the ears. Numerous studies show that post-harvest losses are very important. And although one must increase productivity to ensure food security, it is also necessary to reduce losses. For instance, I read that the corn weevil is capable of destroying up to 40% of the stockpiled harvest. Fifty kilometers from Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 8 OctoberAt the side of the road, some villagers are selling karité butter. A shopkeeper is here to buy their supply. A kilo of butter is sold for 300 CFA (46 euro centimes). I was surprised because taking into account the whole production process, I can attest that it is long hard work (crushing, grinding, heating...). The villagers say that they don’t have any choice. “School is going to start, there is the malaria...” In light of this I can understand why the buyer/retailer didn’t want me to take any pictures, and even threatened to call the police. Toussiana, Burkina Faso, 7 October 2010Scene in a yam field where the mounds have just been piled up. About 5 km from Passena, Burkina Faso, 24 October 2010A harvest scene on the edge of a cassava field. A dozen kilometers from Passena, Burkina Faso, 29 October 2010Some children are helping their mothers fill sacks with charcoal which they have made and will sell at the roadside (the main Bamako-Sikasso road). Charcoal is easy to carry and produces little smoke so it is popular with the city dwellers. But, as well as pollution problems, it encourages an unreasonable and unsustainable use of timber. Dialakoroba, Burkina Faso, 2 September 2010This young child is bringing a basket of manioc from the field to her little village (I judge the distance to be at least one kilometer). The manioc will be taken in the evening to a small facility in Gaoua where it will processed by hand into attiéké (manioc meal). Like yam production, the growing of manioc is not well developed in Burkina Faso, although studies (particularly from the FAO) show that the tuber, for a variety of reasons (it can be grown in poor soil, it needs little additional input, its leaves can be eaten) is helpful in the struggle to acquire food security. 10 km from Passena, Burkina Faso, 29 October 2010A morning scene at a village well. Houses here don’t have either running water or electricity. Access to safe drinking water is a “priority target of the Millennium Development Goals” (MDG) proposing to reduce by half between 1990 and 2050 the number of people who don’t have access to a source of safe drinking water. Passena, Burkina Faso, 29 October 2010These children have pumped water from the well and are bringing it back to their house situated more than 500 meters away. Studies show that the domestic work done by young girls in helping their mothers fetch water and firewood, complicates, and in some cases prevents them, from attending school. A dozen kilometers from Banfora, Burkina Faso, 8 October 2010A scene in a classroom of a primary school in a small village. One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) set up by the United Nations is to “Assure primary education for all” (Objective 2). Some studies done in Burkina Faso lend evidence to the inequality in education, between boys and girls, rural and urban populations, the poor and the well-to-do. Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 11 October 2010A scene in a classroom of a primary school in a small village. One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) set up by the United Nations is to “Assure primary education for all” (Objective 2). Although this aim is essential, scholastic tests show that students in rural areas have significant deficiencies. Chores in the field and around the house, added to poor nutrition help explain why children lack attention in class. Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 11 October 2010On the two occasions that I visited this little village, I found this child always occupied with farm chores. Children are a valuable aid to their families. Between 2006-2007 the rate of school attendance was 39.7% for primary school (age 6-12) and 7% for secondary. Fifty kilometers from Tiefora, Burkina Faso, 8 October 2010Michel and his family are building a granary to store last year`s millet harvest. This is an important step in limiting the post-harvest damage caused by insects, fungi, mice, weather... According to some studies, these loses can be as great as 30% of production in West Africa. Wilie, Burkina Faso, 15 November 2010Michel and his family have nearly finished a granary to store last year`s millet harvest. Following the torrential rains that hit Ouagadougou and its vicinity around the first of September 2009, I heard on the radio that many of the granaries were damaged and some destroyed. Rather than taking photographs of the wreckage, over the next 3 days I shot the various steps in construction. Wilie, Burkina Faso, 18 November 2010A group of villagers has come to help a farmer harvest the season’s last fields of sorghum which are “still on their feet”. In the vicinity of Wilie, Burkina Faso, 18 November 2010The drying area of the INERA research station (Institute for the Environment and Agricultural Research) in Saria. This man is moving sheaves of sesame cut a few days earlier to let them dry properly. The entire crop is intended to “multiple” its seeds. This will provide a supply for farmers for the next season. The strain of sesame developed in Burkina is sometimes referred to as “the other white gold of Burkina Faso” because the sesame, sold for export, is a source of revenue for the country and the producers. Burkina Faso, 11 November 2010A group of women has come to bring in the millet harvest belonging to a small farmer. Generally they split a sum of about 3,000 CFA (4.57 euros). During the morning the men cut the field. Nicole (Baby) age 14 has just quit school, “can’t afford it”. Laye, Burkina Faso, 8 November 2010A group of women, around thirty, has come to bring in the millet harvest belonging to a small farmer. Earlier in the morning, the men cut about one hectare of the large field. The grain will be dried and stored in a thatched granary. This is an important step in limiting the post-harvest damage caused by insects, fungi, mice, weather... According to some studies, these loses can be as great as 30% of production in West Africa. A small village a dozen kilometers from Koudougou, Burkina Faso, 8 November 2010A group of women, around thirty, has come to bring in the millet harvest belonging to a small farmer. Earlier in the morning, the men cut about one hectare of the large field. For approximately 5 hours of work they earn 3,000 CFA (4.57 euros) and a lunch. A dozen kilometers from Koudougou, Burkina Faso, 8 November 2010In the threshing area near the house, these children are beating or shelling sorghum. This method causes a great deal of loss (seeds ejected, crushed). Wilie, Burkina Faso, 18 November 2010A scene of the processing of part of the millet harvest using a mill stone. Wilie, Burkina Faso, 18 November 2010Grinding grain (millet, sorghum, corn,...) using an electrical generator. The rains during the wet season have taken down part of the walls. Grinding mills relieve the women of their domestic work, and potentially liberate them for remunerative work like growing vegetables, for example. The also provide jobs in rural communities. Passena, Burkina Faso, 23 October 2010Xavier and his whole family are coming back from their field with their niebe (bean) harvest loaded on the bicycle. For the large majority of peasants, farming is a family activity and everyone participates. The niebe crop is poor this time and won’t be sold, it will be used entirely for personal consumption. As the mayor of one tiny village in the region told me, “This is subsistence farming. I don’t know how to get out of it and move toward a market agriculture that would get people out of this kind of improvising and poverty.” Siderabougou, Burkina Faso, 14 October 2010Market day. This young man is carting a load of yams from a small settlement to the village of Passena. There buyers from outside are waiting who will buy from him at a low price and ship overnight by truck to the cities of Burkina, as well as to other destinations such as Bamako. The inability to ship their produce themselves, or for example, to refrigerate it so as to wait for a rise in price, obliges the farmers to give up their produce at a low price. Near Passena, Burkina Faso, 25 October 2010Market day in Passena. These men are returning from a circuit through the neighbouring villages where they have bought yams. The inability to ship their produce themselves, or for example, to refrigerate it so as to wait for a rise in price, obliges the farmers to give up their produce at a low price. Near Passena, Burkina Faso, 25 October 2010A scene of transporting the corn harvest from the field to the home, a distance of at least 3 km. As the mayor of one tiny village in the region told me, “This is subsistence farming. I don’t know how to get out of it and move toward a market agriculture that would get people out of this kind of improvising and poverty.” Toussiana, Burkina Faso, 6 October 2010Michael is transporting his peanut harvest to his home, two kilometers from here. He is about to pass his sister-in-law who for the past three hours has been busy fetching firewood. Near Kampti, Burkina Faso, 17 October 2010These children are keeping an eye on the millet harvest that their father wants to sell in Ouagadougou (a hundred kilometers away), in order to get a more favourable price. They are waiting for a “taxi” that will agree to take them along with their load. Near Sapouy, Burkina Faso, 4 October 2010A farmer, age 77, after work in his terrace garden overlooking the city of Bamako, relaxes with his family gathered around him. Bamako, Mali, 31 August 2010A truck in front of a storage shed about to unload sacks of rice from Pakistan. The rice is for the “Nation-wide Program for Schools and School Canteens” started in 2009/2010. It aims to increase school attendance and encourage academic achievement, since better fed children will become better students. Koudougou, Burkina Faso, 11 November 2010Scene at a christening. Since electricity has been introduced (here from a battery) traditional musicians are not in demand. Moreover, western music is usually preferred and surprisingly few people dance, most keep to their seats and chat. The older ones frequently told me of their distress at the changes in culture and frame of mind that have taken place in just one or two generations. Near Kampti, Burkina Faso, 19 October 2010Early evening, a man is running a generator so that the villagers can follow the programs on TV. In West Africa, a Brazilian soap opera is a big hit. Kouoro Barrage, Mail, 19 September 2010The “Tilika” diety, “the local spirit who is the guardian of houses.” The villagers have killed a chicken and two guinea hens to let the spirit know that they have finished their work in the gardens (building the yam mounds). A small village about 5 km from Passena, Burkina Faso, 22 October 2010A scene in a “maquis” (a bar) not far from Kampti. In Burkina Faso, the overwhelming presence of alcohol in the countryside is astounding. There is dolo, of course (millet beer), but all sorts of other drinks as well, such as pastis from Marseille (often drunk pure) in the remotest villages, even where they don’t have electricity or water. Burkina Faso, 20 October 2010After celebrating a mass at the end of the harvest, Father Maxime blesses the food that the parishioners have brought and, I was told, will be used as a supply in a few months during the “in-between season” to help out the families in greatest difficulty. The evening before, in the little village of Mimissia, after the priest had said “the graces”, about twenty people got up and danced briefly to some drums, but that wasn’t the case this time. Vé, Burkina Faso, 10 December 2010The festival of Aïd (the breaking of the fast--the end of Ramadan--for Muslims) in a little village. The women and children dance. In the evening, at school, a loudspeaker blasts out rap, disco and reggae for the young people. NKourala, Mali, 10 September 2010A young man collects millet stalks to serve as fodder in a few months during the dry season. In the foreground is a stone perimeter. In the area of the Sahel, this is a technique used to conserve water and soil and the battle against erosion. Doury, Burkina Faso, 14 December 2010Millet stalks are stacked in the trees with the idea of serving as fodder in dry season which is just getting underway. A severe drought at the beginning of the year, caused by the scarcity of rain in 2009, required the FAO to distribute fodder to the herdspeople in Mali and Burkina Faso. Gourcy, Burkina Faso, 14 December 2010
